Water and Irrigation Management

Water and Irrigation Management

Investigation of the Role of Fern in the Removal of Heavy Metal Lead from Aquatic Environments Using the Phytoremediation Process

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
Farzad Hashemzadeh 1
Farshad Hashemzadeh 2
mahsa jabbari 1
Samira Darvish 2
1 Water and Wastewater Research Center, Water Research Institute, Tehran, Iran.
2 Department of Health, Safety and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Saveh Institute of Higher Energy Education, Saveh, Iran.
10.22059/jwim.2025.393438.1220
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the potential of phytoremediation for removing lead, a heavy metal, using fern plants. The experiment was designed as a completely randomized trial with five replications under greenhouse conditions. The treatment levels comprised four concentrations of lead in water: 0, 100, 200, and 300 mg/L. Data analysis was performed using SPSS V21, and mean comparisons were conducted with Duncan's test at a significance level of 0.05, while graphs were generated using Excel software. The results from the variance analysis indicated that lead treatment significantly influenced electrical conductivity, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, soluble sodium, and total hardness at the 1% significance level, as well as pH and iron content at the 5% level. However, the effect of lead concentration on the lead content in various drainage treatments was not statistically significant. Overall, the findings suggest that the lead concentrations tested in this study did not adversely affect the growth of fern plants. This conclusion is further supported by the transfer and bioaccumulation factors observed. Therefore, it can be inferred that fern plants exhibited resistance to lead concentrations in water, indicating that levels up to 300 mg/L had no significant impact on the length and weight of leaves and stems.

Therefore, it can be inferred that fern plants exhibited resistance to lead concentrations in water, indicating that levels up to 300 mg/L had no significant impact on the length and weight of leaves and stems.
Keywords
Ferns
Lead
Phytoremediation
Water and wastewater treatment
Subjects
  1. Ansari, A. A., Naeem, M., Gill, S. S., & AlZuaibr, F. M. (2020). Phytoremediation of contaminated waters: An eco-friendly technology based on aquatic macrophytes application. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 46(4), 371-376.
  2. Ashraf, U., Hussain, S., Anjum, S. A., Abbas, F., Tanveer, M., Noor, M. A., & Tang, X. (2017). Alterations in growth, oxidative damage, and metal uptake of five aromatic rice cultivars under lead toxicity. Plant physiology and biochemistry, 115, 461-471.
  3. Bhat, S.A., Bashir, O., Haq, S.A.U., Amin, T., Rafiq, A., Ali, M., Américo-Pinheiro, J.H.P. and Sher, F. (2022). Phytoremediation of heavy metals in soil and water: An eco-friendly, sustainable and multidisciplinary approach. Chemosphere, 303, 134788.
  4. Cetin, M., & Jawed, A. A. (2024). Variation of Ba concentrations in some plants grown in Pakistan depending on traffic density. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14(3), 3785-3791.
  5. Chanu, L. B., & Gupta, A. (2016). Phytoremediation of lead using Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. in hydroponicsolution. Chemosphere, 156, 407-411.
  6. Chehregani Rad, A., Farzan, S., & Shirkhani, Z. (2017). Effect of lead treatment on some morphological and physiological parameters of Petunia hybrida. Journal of Plant Research (Iranian Journal of Biology), 30(1), 47-57.
  7. Chen, Z., Yang, B., Hao, Z., Zhu, J., Zhang, Y., & Xu, T. (2018). Exogenous hydrogen sulfide ameliorates seed germination and seedling growth of cauliflower under lead stress and its antioxidant role. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 37, 5-15.
  8. Danyal, Y., Mahmood, K., Ullah, S., Rahim, A., Raheem, G., Khan, A. H., & Ullah, A. (2023). Phytoremediation of industrial effluents assisted by plant growth promoting bacteria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(3), 5296-5311.
  9. Devi, P., & Kumar, P. (2020). Concept and application of phytoremediation in the fight of heavy metal toxicity. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 12(6), 795-804.
  10. Farnezi, M.M.D.M., Silva, E.D.B., Santos, L.L.D., Silva, A.C., Grazziotti, P.H., Alleoni, L.R.F., Silva, W.C., Santos, A.A., Alves, F.A.F., Bezerra, I.R.S., & Miranda, L.C. (2022). Potential of Forage Grasses in Phytoremediation of Lead through Production of Phytoliths in Contaminated Soils. Land, 12(1), 62.
  11. Fierascu, I., Fierascu, R. C., Ungureanu, C., Draghiceanu, O. A., & Soare, L. C. (2021). Application of polypodiopsida class in nanotechnology–potential towards development of more effective bioactive solutions. Antioxidants, 10(5), 748.
  12. Ghosh, M., & Singh, S. (2005). A review on phytoremediation of heavy metals and utilization of it’s by products. Asian J Energy Environ, 6(4), 18.
  13. Gołda, S., & Korzeniowska, J. (2016). Comparison of phytoremediation potential of three grass species in soil contaminated with cadmium. Prot. Nat. Resour, 27(1), 8-14.
  14. Gul, I., Manzoor, M., Kallerhoff, J., & Arshad, M. (2020). Enhanced phytoremediation of lead by soil applied organic and inorganic amendments: Pb phytoavailability, accumulation and metal recovery. Chemosphere, 258, 127405.
  15. Hashemzadeh, F., Hasani, A., Ahmad Panahi, H., & Borghei, S. M. (2018). Evaluation of the removal of heavy metals (cadmium lead, and zinc) from aqueous solutions using multi-walled carbon nanotubes modified with chitosan. Journal of Water and Wastewater; Ab va Fazilab (in persian), 29, 31-41.
  16. Hashemzadeh, F., Hasani, E., & Qeyoumi, R. (2020). Evaluation of basil plant efficiency in removing mercury from aquatic environments. Journal of Water and Wastewater, 31, 128-137.
  17. Hashemzadeh, F., Hassani, A. H., & Ghaiomi, R. (2020). Studying Efficiency of Basil Plant in Removal of Mercury Metal from Aqueous Solution. Journal of Water and Wastewater; Ab va Fazilab (in persian), 31(3), 128-137. doi:10.22093/wwj.2019.186355.2869
  18. Hauptvogl, M., Kotrla, M., Prčík, M., Pauková, Ž., Kováčik, M., & Lošák, T. (2019). Phytoremediation potential of fast-growing energy plants: challenges and perspectives–a review. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 29(1), 505-516.
  19. Hussain, I., Siddique, A., Ashraf, M.A., Rasheed, R., Ibrahim, M., Iqbal, M., Akbar, S. and Imran, M. (2017). Does exogenous application of ascorbic acid modulate growth, photosynthetic pigments and oxidative defense in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) under lead stress? Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 39, 1-13.
  20. Izah, S. C., Chakrabarty, N., & Srivastav, A. L. (2016). A review on heavy metal concentration in potable water sources in Nigeria: human health effects and mitigating measures. Exposure and health, 8, 285-304.
  21. Jeevanantham, S., Saravanan, A., Hemavathy, R., Kumar, P. S., Yaashikaa, P., & Yuvaraj, D. (2019). Removal of toxic pollutants from water environment by phytoremediation: a survey on application and future prospects. Environmental technology & innovation, 13, 264-276.
  22. Jonoubi, P., & Karimi Limanjoubi, S. L. (2023). Phytoremediation Potential, Anatomical and Reproductive Changes of Azolla Filiculoides Fern in a Polluted Area of Anzali Wetland, Iran. Fern in a Polluted Area of Anzali Wetland, Iran.
  23. Kapepula, V. L., & Luis, P. (2024). Removal of heavy metals from wastewater using reverse osmosis. Frontiers in Chemical Engineering, 6, 1334816.
  24. Karimi, A., Khodaverdiloo, H., & Rasouli Sadaghiani, M. (2017). Plant tolerance, accumulation and remediation of Pb by three rangeland plant species in a calcareous soil in west Azerbaijan province. Journal of Natural Environment, 70(4), 907-922.
  25. Khan, A., Khan, S., Khan, M. A., Qamar, Z., & Waqas, M. (2015). The uptake and bioaccumulation of heavy metals by food plants, their effects on plants nutrients, and associated health risk: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 13772-13799.
  26. Khan, I., Iqbal, M., Ashraf, M. Y., Ashraf, M. A., & Ali, S. (2016). Organic chelants-mediated enhanced lead (Pb) uptake and accumulation is associated with higher activity of enzymatic antioxidants in spinach (Spinacea oleracea). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 317, 352-361.
  27. Kooijman, G., De Kreuk, M., Houtman, C., & Van Lier, J. (2020). Perspectives of coagulation/flocculation for the removal of pharmaceuticals from domestic wastewater: A critical view at experimental procedures. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 34, 101161.
  28. Laghlimi, M., Baghdad, B., El Hadi, H., & Bouabdli, A. (2015). Phytoremediation mechanisms of heavy metal contaminated soils: a review. Open journal of Ecology, 5(8), 375-388.
  29. Li, R., Dong, F., Yang, G., Zhang, W., Zong, M., Nie, X., Zhou, L., Liu, J., Fan, C., & Zeng, Y. (2020). Characterization of Arsenic and Uranium Pollution Surrounding a Uranium Mine in Southwestern China and Phytoremediation Potential. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 29(1).
  30. Lintern, G., Scarlett, A.G., Gagnon, M.M., Leeder, J., Amhet, A., Lettoof, D.C., Leshyk, V.O., Bujak, A., Bujak, J., & Grice, K. (2024). Phytoremediation Potential of Azolla filiculoides: Uptake and Toxicity of Seven Per‐and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) at Environmentally Relevant Water Concentrations. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 43(10), 2157-2168.
  31. MacFarlane, G. R., Koller, C. E., & Blomberg, S. P. (2007). Accumulation and partitioning of heavy metals in mangroves: A synthesis of field-based studies. Chemosphere, 69(9), 1454-1464.
  32. Muthusaravanan, S., Sivarajasekar, N., Vivek, J.S., Paramasivan, T., Naushad, M., Prakashmaran, J., Gayathri, V., & Al-Duaij, O.K. (2018). Phytoremediation of heavy metals: mechanisms, methods and enhancements. Environmental chemistry letters, 16, 1339-1359.
  33. Nojabaee, S. A., Ghajar Sepanlou, M., & Bahmanyar, M. A. (2017). Concentration of lead and chromium in leaves of cress and parsley in soils irrigated with contaminated water. Journal of Water Research in Agriculture, 31(2), 181-194.
  34. Pidlisnyuk, V., Erickson, L., Stefanovska, T., Popelka, J., Hettiarachchi, G., Davis, L., & Trögl, J. (2019). Potential phytomanagement of military polluted sites and biomass production using biofuel crop Miscanthus x giganteus. Environmental Pollution, 249, 330-337.
  35. Roa-Fuentes, C. A., Heino, J., Zeni, J. O., Ferraz, S., Cianciaruso, M. V., & Casatti, L. (2020). Importance of local and landscape variables on multiple facets of stream fish biodiversity in a Neotropical agroecosystem. Hydrobiologia, 1-18.
  36. Şevik, H. (2020). Change of Cu concentration in some edible landscape plants grown in Ankara City Center. Kastamonu university journal of engineering and sciences, 6(1), 1-7.
  37. Shah, K., & Nongkynrih, J. (2007). Metal hyperaccumulation and bioremediation. Biologia plantarum, 51, 618-634.
  38. Shen, X., Dai, M., Yang, J., Sun, L., Tan, X., Peng, C., Ali, I., & Naz, I. (2022). A critical review on the phytoremediation of heavy metals from environment: Performance and challenges. Chemosphere, 291, 132979.
  39. Shrestha, P., Bellitürk, K., & Görres, J. H. (2019). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soil by switchgrass: A comparative study utilizing different composts and coir fiber on pollution remediation, plant productivity, and nutrient leaching. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(7), 1261.
  40. Sidhu, G. P. S., Singh, H. P., Batish, D. R., & Kohli, R. K. (2016). Effect of lead on oxidative status, antioxidative response and metal accumulation in Coronopus didymus. Plant physiology and biochemistry, 105, 290-296.
  41. Simmer, R. A., & Schnoor, J. L. (2022). Phytoremediation, bioaugmentation, and the plant microbiome. Environmental science & technology, 56(23), 16602-16610.
  42. Siyar, R., Doulati Ardejani, F., Norouzi, P., Maghsoudy, S., Yavarzadeh, M., Taherdangkoo, R., & Butscher, C. (2022). Phytoremediation potential of native hyperaccumulator plants growing on heavy metal-contaminated soil of Khatunabad copper smelter and refinery, Iran. Water, 14(22), 3597.
  43. Tang, C., Song, J., Hu, X., Hu, X., Zhao, Y., Li, B., Ou, D., & Peng, L. (2017). Exogenous spermidine enhanced Pb tolerance in Salix matsudana by promoting Pb accumulation in roots and spermidine, nitric oxide, and antioxidant system levels in leaves. Ecological Engineering, 107, 41-48.
  44. Testa, G., Corinzia, S. A., Cosentino, S. L., & Ciaramella, B. R. (2023). Phytoremediation of cadmium-, lead-, and nickel-polluted soils by industrial hemp. Agronomy, 13(4), 995.
  45. Zaier, H., Ghnaya, T., Lakhdar, A., Baioui, R., Ghabriche, R., Mnasri, M., Sghair, S., Lutts, S., & Abdelly, C. (2010). Comparative study of Pb-phytoextraction potential in Sesuvium portulacastrum and Brassica juncea: tolerance and accumulation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 183(1-3), 609-615.
Water and Irrigation Management
Volume 15, Issue 2
Autumn 2025
Pages 379-392